Prehistoric Art refers to the period at which art pre dates our basic understanding of history and civilization, beyond any knowledge of art. Attributed to the ideas of preliterate and basic cultures; primarily Homo Sapiens, Neanderthals and Early Hominids making use of primitive tools and materials, this period challenges the point at which we begin to describe these forms and marks as 'art'. Many of these artefacts are found in the modern world by archaeologists. Examples of these early artefacts are thought to be dating back to 30,000 BCE, such as Venus of Willendorf, believed to be the earliest ideals for the female form fromt the Stone Age, up to the Makaspansgat Pebble, South Africa, thought to resemble the human face up to 3,000,000 BCE. Despite these findings, most Prehistoric art is found in Eurasia.

Venus of Willendorf, Austria, 30,000 BCE

Makaspansgat Pebble, South Africa, 3,000,000 BCE

Prehistoric artefacts also serve as our gateway to finding out about these little understood hunter-gatherer societies, therefore having an importance to both science and history. Due to Prehistoric art, we have learnt more about the skills and brain capabilities of early humanoids. 

Cave Paintings

Some of the most common examples known of Prehistoric art are found in the caves of Western Europe, examples being the Chauvet Caves of Vallon-Pont d'Arch, France (30,000-28,000 BCE), showing the earliest known figurative paintings in the world or the Lascaux Cave Paintings in Dordogne, France (15,000 BCE) both of which were the markings of pigment on the stone walls. These caves have survived abandonment and rediscovery in 1879, at first understood to be fakes, they eventually redefined our beliefs about the early people of the Stone Age.

Lascaux Cave Paintings, France, 15,000 BCE

Styles of these cave paintings tell much about the lifestyle of hunting animals e.g. hyenas, horses and bison with extraordinary detail, using pigments found in clays such as red ochre, other clays and charcoals.

Prehistoric Art in Britain

In a British context, Stonehenge is the most relative example of Prehistoric Art. In Wiltshire, Stonehenge is considered one of the Seven Wonders of the World, comprising of a ring of standing stones built up to 3000 BCE. The area of Wiltshire is of great significance to archaeologists where further extensions of the standing stones can be found, most recently the existence of a Superhenge five metres below the ground level. This is an example of how dating technologies help us reveal the histories of these artefacts.

Stonehenge, Wiltshire, England, 3000 BCE.

Where does Prehistoric Art end and Ancient Art begin? the answer is found in the idea that humans at this point had developed a more innate understanding of settlements and early civilizations which emerged parallel into the Near Eastern, Egyptian, Roman and Greek civilizations that we have a more in depth knowledge of in the present day, which is where the limitations of the Prehistoric world end and art becomes slightly more complex.

Ancient Near Eastern art encompasses the area of Mesopotamia, modernly the region of Iraq and Syria. Traditionally, Iraq is thought to be where civilization first took root and expanded from 5000 years before present. With this development came the idea of settlements and livelihoods centred around organized agricultures and a more domestic style of living, and eventually class systems which resembles our way of living today. Along with this came the introduction of cities and centres of cultural significance.

From the beginning, one of the first societies to emerge was Sumer in Iraq, has provided us with evidence of this in the form of ceramics, figures and Ancient architecture. In Uruk, where the first written language was reportedly used, lies evidence that with Near Eastern Art, a greater philosophical meaning was embedded into the art, despite still being created with a purpose. An example is White Temple and Ziggurat which was an architectural structure made of mud-brick around 3000 BC which emphasises the connection between art and the Gods, in reference to this site, the Sky God Anu, standing above the city walls.

White Temple & Ziggurat, Uruk, Iraq, made from mud-brick, 3,000 BCE

Architecture & Construction

Built within city walls, the focus of the Near East cities is the Ziggurat, an early stylized and geometric development of the pyramid. Typically constructed with mud-bricks, a Ziggurat is a 4-sloped-sided monumental building raised upon a platform, symbolically, the height represented both a higher connection to the gods as well as a sign of 'political authority'. 

The Ishtar Gate is also an important part of Near Eastern Art, as it was constructed as the eighth gate to the Ancient city of Babylon in 575 BCE. Archaeology has since excavated the gate which is now exhibited in Berlin. This serves as an important example of not only the cities structures in the Middle East at this time, but also exhibits the various colours introduced during this time period as a means of expression in their forms of design such as the blues of lapis lazuli and black and yellow glazed bricks to achieve a jewel like texture. 

Ishtar Gate, Constructed in Babylon, 575 BCE, now exhibited in Berlin, made of cedar structure, lapis lazuli, yellow and black glazed brick.

Sculpture & Definition

By around 3,500 BCE, the Near Eastern civilization had begun to develop their skills in sculpting and definition in the figure, losing the childlike quality which plagued the cave paintings from previous millennia. This can be seen in the Ishtar Gate's definition of the lion patterning, or the improving proportions of statues and figurines. 

Sculpture itself was typically crafted from rock cut-relief or from cast metal, which showed a developed skill in manufacturing and metalwork. Furthermore, there was a diverse spread of the art of sculpting, from figures carved into the sides of architecture, to life-scale sculptures, to small figurines which could be transported during migration. Despite the varying nature of different styles, this added to the idea that this era was not creating 'art for art's sake' but instead meaning it as a form of decoration and ornamentation with a meaning that can relate to worship or class related wealth and power, this can be exhibited in sculptures; Ram in a Thicket, a work from 2,600 BCE found in a tomb in Tell Muqayyar as a sign of wealth crafted from lapis lazuli, copper, red limestone and bitumen, highlighting vibrant tones, as well as the Statuettes of Worshippers, which have been partially lost from Eshnunna, reaching only 30 inches in height. 

Ram in a Thicket, Muqayyar, Iraq, 2,600 BCE.

Statuettes of Worshippers, Eshnunna, Iraq, made from Gypsum, Shell and Black Limestone, 2,700 BCE.

However, many of the artefacts of the Ancient Middle Eastern world have been lost to degradation, war and terrorism, for example the Iraq war in 2003, or ISIS most recently destroying the City of Nimrud has led to the damage or destruction of an ever increasing number of these Ancient cities and have now become ruins.

Ultimately, Near Eastern Art bridged the gap between Prehistoric Art and the beginnings of Ancient Art, developing in parallel to other civilizations such as the Egyptian and later Greek and Roman empires, it is clear that Middle Eastern art has had a profound impact on our perspective of art today and it's impact in terms of architecture and sculpture making. 

Ancient Egyptian art is widely known for it's very lavish style and use of rich materials in order to represent the wealth and hierarchic society from which it originates. The beginning of religious depictions in art took a very different approach when adapted to Egyptian beliefs regarding death and an afterlife. The artefacts surviving to the modern day have shown deep rooted links to one another in their materials, pyramid shapes, hieroglyphics and stylized figures these features are highlighted in the Old, Middle and New Kingdoms.

The Nile, now a source of conflict between Egypt and Ethiopia, was once the centre of the Egyptian civilization, with biblical connotations in regards to Moses in the Old Testament, and is thought to be a point of great importance in major religions.

Ceramics, largely pottery, became an important art form to Ancient Egypt, e.g. in Hu and Naqada. In Naqada, earlier forms of pottery were designed with a smooth red texture, to be embellished with black and white paint. Evidence of this pottery has been found in over 900 of the 1500 early Egyptian tombs, and s thought to be significant to the cultural belief in the afterlife, often found in animal or family graves, it is understood that this was the pottery of the lower class Egyptians. However, more embellishments designed with more rare materials are a sign of the establishment of a political hierarchy.

These Fragments of an Egyptian Tomb Painting perfectly captures the style in which Egyptian Art operated. For example, there is little use of perspective, while there is also a lack of movement as bodies are twisted between profile and forward facing features. There is often a repetition, pattern or rhyme to the ways that people or other images are gathered, incorporating a sense of geometry. Furthermore, the colours are very specifically terracotta, light blue, browns, blacks and white and often display hints of symbols or hieroglyphics.

The Pyramids

The Great Pyramids of Giza are the most well known of the Egyptian style of architectural structures. Built around 3,000 to 2,500 BCE, standing at a height of 450 feet, they remained the tallest structures in the world until the Eiffel Tower in 1889. This ambition in construction was meant for that of a lasting civilization, taking generations to build, the creation of the pyramids became a cultural focal point.

The Pyramids of Giza, Egypt, 3,000 -2,500 BCE, made of Limestone, 450 feet high.

Egyptian Art, mostly, follows on from the themes and purposes of Near Eastern Art in relation to it's emphasis on Ancient styles of architecture and sculpture, as well as it's focus on empire building, religious worship and signs of hierarchy. Aesthetically, two styles can be compared in their attention to geometry in city structures and the introduction of new rich and vibrant colours.

Ancient Greek Art is typically celebrated for it's idealist imitation of perfection to the point of distortion, but focused mostly on the building of a new empire; the majority of early Ancient Greek Art was from Sparta or Athens, and can be attached to the perfect human form in sculpture or the innovative features of architecture and new types of building to house a newly democratic city in Athens. Later on, this would move into the Hellenistic Greek Art period in which the style of art making spread to all of the Greek Islands. Ancient Greek art would later shape and influence Classical Roman Art.

The Origin of Drawing can also be an accolade attributed to the Greeks, with the idea of Dibutades and the first relief sculpture in order to preserve the memory of his daughter's distant boyfriend for her. Despite this being considered an average Greek myth, this has influenced much of Classical Greek art in it's experimentation with the ideal human figure.

During this period, Ancient Greece had developed into an almost modern society in it's application to  mathematics, arts, literature etc. thanks to minds such as Plato, Aristotle and Socrates which have become an influence in today's Western World. The Ancient Greek era of art started only years after the establishment of democracy in Athens.

Greek Architecture

When looking at Greek Architecture, the Three Orders must be understood in their derision from the human form; Doric, Ionic and Corinthian structures which vary in form from masculine styles to the feminine design of the Ionic and Corinthian. Firstly, the Doric column does not rest on a platform, but on the ground below as shown in the Temple of the Delions, Delos. Secondly, the Ionic structure consists of a base which separates the stylobate and the column's shaft, decorated with paired scrolled volutes curling from the column's top. Finally, Corinthian columns are noted for their tapered shaft with very intricate detailing of leaves and scrolls. Classic examples of architecture unique to Ancient Greece include the Temple of Hera (550 BCE), or the Acropolis (c. 500 BCE). The Acropolis is an example of a typical Greek structure with doric columns and a shallow roof or pediment. Despite the Acropolis being slowly degraded, it has maintained a strong basic shape.

The Acropolis, Athens, built around 500 BCE, features doric columns and a shallow roof or pediment.

Greek Sculpture

Greek sculpture and it's illustration of the human form is based on the theme of idealism rather than realism, attempting to replicate the strength and beauty of the Gods. Greek figures were strong and proportioned to the point of distortion to reach a level of perfection considered unnatural. These classic sculptures often incorporated use of the golden ratio to guide figures into the most aesthetically appealing proportions.

An example of the perfection of Greek Sculpture is Myron's Diskobolus (Disk Thrower) from 440 BCE r highlights the athleticism required for Ancient Greek Sculpture, as most male figures were either sportsmen or warriors, this sculpture in particular gives us an insight into the lifestyles and aspirations of the Greek era. This sculpture is made of bronze, standing at a height of 61 inches.

Myron's "Diskobolus" (Disc Thrower) c. 450 BCE

It can be noted in relation to this sculpture, that the figure is of optimum body type, in an Olympians pose to highlight the perfection of it's tone and muscle. It also embodies the perfect proportions as idealized by the Ancient Greeks.

It should also be recognized that most Greek sculpture from this time period has degraded over time, only leaving a colourless tone to the figures, while if seen during their initial conception, they would have been created in vibrant colours despite the common trend of misconception is that these sculptures were intended to be colourless or white. An example of what a restored or original sculpture would have looked like can be seen below as opposed to the modern style devoid of 'polychroming'.

"Peplos Kore" from Acropolis, Athens c. 530 BCE around 48 inches in height.

The early Greek sculpture above indicates that despite popular belief, the art of the Ancient Greeks had the ability to be vibrant and bold, mostly focusing on reds, and primary and secondary colours, i.e.. deep blues and greens. This is important as it shows how the level of preservation of this Ancient type of art is vital to it's modern legacy and how it is perceived today.

Greek Theatre

The beginnings of entertainment were celebrated by the Greeks in a more social manner, with infrastructure dedicated this art form.

Polykleitos the Younger Theatre, built c. 350 BCE in Epidauros, Greece.

The theatre above is a famous and typical example of how an amphitheatre is structured, situated upon a hillside in order to help the audience visually and acoustically in order to overlook the centre stage. However, nowadays, these have become classic evidence of Greek civilization, with infrastructure like this and ancient examples of architecture become essential to the Greek tourism industry.

The Greek Tragedians also had a profound impact on the way that performance art, screenplays and acting all worked with three geniuses which impacted and changed the way theatre worked. Firstly, Aeschylus was responsible for the creations of sequels and trilogy as well as applying a second character to create a more dynamic dialogue over the writing of eight plays. Secondly, Sophocles mastered the adding of a third actor in order to add more drama in a complex scene, this served to strengthen characters through subtle characterization and plot. An example of a Sophocles masterpiece is Oedipus the King. Finally, Euripides was known for his ability to develop a new stance on Greek mythology.

To sum up the art of Ancient Greece, it has left us with it's sculptural forms of idealism and athleticism, but has also created millennia lasting structures of architecture such as the Acropolis and the Temple of Artemis. Much of which artwork is a feature of modern marvel of ancient techniques.

Ancient Roman Art, not including the Byzantine period, lasted almost 1000 years, beginning with the Roman Republic Art from 509 BCE. Art of the Roman Empire can be likened to it's inspiration and recycling from Ancient Greek Art, however, it can be defined as the period which comprised of and relied on architecture and sculpture as a monument to the empire. Evidence of Roman Art is still very relevant as it's durable and strong structures have lasted to the present day.

Materials & Construction

The materials, techniques and construction of the Romans is still considered unique in it's efficiency and dynamics today. As the Roman empire expanded, it came to follow in the footsteps of the Ancient Greek period, first working in clay and terra cotta before moving onto more complex processes and materials such as the lost-wax process to construct bronze sculptures and mixing copper and tin as well as mastering the shaping of metals and marble.

Roman Architecture

 Roman  Architecture is once again based on the structural qualities of Greek architecture, but introduced new features such as arches and domes. This style of building expanded during the Pax Romana, a time of Roman peace time and expansion. The materials were based on concrete for strength and durability in order to stand the test of time, this is sometimes referred to as the Concrete Revolution. A common material also used was the Roman Brick, a fired clay brick produced in a kiln and stamped by the region in which it was produced. An example of use of this brick is the Basilica of Constantine in Germany.

In terms of infrastructure, the Romans devised a more civilized society in terms of settlements, health and hygiene and access to food and water, putting an emphasis on public buildings. This way of building is exemplified in the construction of aqueducts, heating systems, watermills, amphitheatres and more basic construction including notable Roman roads, accredited with the development of the modern road, they were essential to trading goods and transporting public and military, often described as highly durable and innovative in their construction. Aqueducts also aided sewer systems and latrines.

However, bridges, dams and canals are all scattered across the relics of the Roman Imperial Art, decorated with these features along with gardens and monoliths. For this reason, Roman Architecture is one of the most defining subjects of this empire due to it's influential style in what it has inspired in the modern era and it's durability, long withstanding other landscapes and constructs. Examples of noteworthy Roman Architecture include, the Colosseum, the Pantheon and even Hadrian's Wall in Britain.

The Colosseum, c. 70-80AD, Built of stone and concrete in the centre of Rome, Italy.

The Colosseum, as shown above, is probably the most well known example of Roman Architecture and is the destination of tourists from around the world. Built of concrete and stone, it is considered to be the largest amphitheatre in the world and a marvel of engineering to both Ancient and modern experts. Capable of holding an audience of 50,000 to 80,000 people, it was used to entertain with other forms of art such as gladiators, animal hunts, mythological dramas etc.

Roman Fine Art 

In terms of Fine Art, Ancient Rome is not considered to be fluent. As owning more art was seen to be better, it was all about the aestheticism to the owner, with most surviving Roman artworks originating from Pompeii as they were preserved by the destruction caused from the volcanic eruption in 79 BCE. Themes of painting revolve much around the basic landscapes and representations of the empire itself, focusing on presentation. This is emphasised in the Nile in Flood (80 BCE) Palestrina, below.

Nile in Flood, Palestrina: Museo Archeologico Prenestino, (80 BCE) A mosaic produced from model.

 To conclude the Roman Art era, it can be seen that there are several routes of inspiration, adoption and adaptation from Greek styles of art. This is most obvious in sculpture and architecture. However, it is also vital to understand that the Roman empire is responsible for some of the most basic infrastructure and inventions that we have today, providing a basis for which the Ancient style of civilization could end and begin a new era. For this reasoning, we would not be living in the same developed world as we do today if not for the Roman Empire and what emerged from it.                                                 

Byzantine Art was initiated by the continuation of the eroded Roman Empire in the Middle Ages. Predominantly Greek speaking, the empire was founded by Byzantium, the capital of which Empire was Constantinople. Out surviving the fall of the Roman Empire until the take over form the Ottoman Turks in 1453. The art of the Byzantine period was defined primarily by highly religious imagery and themes and showed a major departure from the similarities which likened Ancient Greek and Roman Art. The region of this empire was parted by the Mediterranean Sea and encompassed parts of modern Bulgaria, Macedonia, Spain, Italy, the Middle East and Northern Africa.

Not wavering from it's classical ancestry, the Byzantines considered themselves to be Romans, but this was largely a new aesthetic.

One of the biggest departures from the classical arts of Rome and Greece is the abandonment of the realist or naturalistic approach in favour of a more stylized and symbolic representation of an often religious theme. The format and materials used for Byzantine art were very characterized by it's beginnings with the use of mosaic tiles as decoration for churches and domes.

Emperor Justinian I and his Retinue, c. 547 AD.

Emperor Justinian I and his Retinue (c. 547 AD) created by mosaic is a Byzantine depiction of the religious, political and military leader of the region and his contemporaries, it displays features prominent throughout the Byzantine period of art as it's stylisation is dominated by a flat and planar perspective with distinct intricate patterning with neutral and blue tones. It focuses on a tapestry like narrative of a deeply religious theme.

Another important part of how the art of the Byzantines became widespread and important to the public as it furthered ideas visited by the Near Eastern period at which time religion and worship was vital to humankind. After the birth of Orthodox Christianity, icons, idols and portable products of religious art were used as a tool to increase the worldwide influence of the faith. An example of this is the painting from the Sinai Peninsula in Egypt portraying the Virgin and Child from the Monastery of St Catherine as shown below.

Virgin and Child Panel painting, Byzantine Empire, 6th Century.

 In the Virgin and Child panel painting from the Byzantine Empire in the 6th Century, we can identify the infiltration of the Byzantine Doctrine of Christianity has embedded itself into the early art of Western Civilisation. This is important to understand how with the migration patterns of people shape the spread and influence of art even before modern society began. Themed such as the blue robes and the child on the Virgin's lap have been repeated time and time again in art for Centuries after this point and far reaching beyond the influence of the Empire itself. 

To conclude on the Byzantine Empire and its themes of art, it is essential to understand the religious undertones and meaning behind every icon and painting as it creates a narrative from which the religion of today stems from, particularly the depiction and interest surrounding the Virgin Mary. Byzantine decoration and architecture can even be identified in the modern world despite the 1453 conquest of the region by the future Ottoman era, establishing a new period and style of art making.

Gothic Art from the period of the 12th Century to the end of the 15th Century, was of influential importance to the Early Renaissance in a reactionary fashion. While the Renaissance is thought of as the "rebirth" of the Classical art style and an Apollonian return to the perfection and beauty of it's forms, Gothic Art acted as it's pre-existing Dionysian counterpart as it was considered to be grotesque and barbaric.

It was during this period that Europe began to rise to prominence in a way which established trade routes and build upon Western culture as it was developing pre-Renaissance. 

Gothic Architecture 

Gothic Architecture is possibly the most notable use of design during this period, responsible for the ornate decoration of churches and other religious architecture, as this developed into the Renaissance styles we're familiar with, it became known as "International Gothic". 

During the Medieval period the Gothic style particularly flourished in regards to building and infrastructure such as castles, palaces, cathedrals etc. The influence extended into the eventual construction of the "Doge's Palace" in Venice, the "Palais des Papes" in Avignon and various other cities such as Prague, Barcelona and Navarre.

Notre-Dame de Paris, France, Completed c. 1345.

The Notre-Dame de Paris in France, as pictured above, is an iconic masterpiece of Gothic Architecture. Completed around the year of 1345, the Notre-Dame is a historically noteworthy Catholic cathedral. The building is unique to previous architecture as in it's construction, it is one of the first to involve a flying buttress, a feature of Parisian Gothic architecture. This consists of vertical masonry to withstand lateral pressure and an arch shape between the buttress and the buildings exterior.

Stained Glass 'Transept Rose' interior of the Notre-Dame in Paris.

Interiors were also a focus of Gothic architecture, highlighted in the Notre-Dame by the transept rose, featuring intricate stained glass, gargoyles and religious imagery which all culminates in an effectively grotesque, heavily ornate and dark stylization of architecture in Northern Europe.

Key influences on Gothic Art

Key artists from this period of art history include Giovanni Pisano, an Italian sculptor who worked on the Siena and Pisa Cathedrals, many of the most prominent works by Pisano include Madonna and Child and The Crucifixion, enhancing the idea that much of the sculpture of the time was highly religious. Jacopo Bellini is an example of a typical Gothic painter, responsible for the founding of the Early Renaissance period, his paintings are reminiscent of the flat and stylized linear painting with a lack of perspective as appearing in his painting of Madonna and Child c. 1455.

It is easy to compare the two images below, both by vastly different artists of the period and conducted in two completely different formats, Bellini's in painting and Pisano's in sculpture. The vital comparison is the scene of Madonna and Child that both artists are trying to depict. This emphasises the focus that Gothic art and Early Renaissance art had on the religious themes and decoration for cathedrals etc.

Giovanni Pisano's "Madonna and Child" sculpture
from the baptistry, Pisa Cathedral.

Jacopo Bellini's, "Madonna and Child" painting, c. 1455.

To conclude, Gothic Art was responsible largely for the beginning of the Early Renaissance era and the return to faith based imagery, this was art for the purpose of decoration, mostly in regards to both exterior and interior construction and architecture. Much of the building made during this period can still be seen in regions of Northern Europe such as France, Spain and Italy.